MilitaryShirt

Misrule, Lord Of

2005-04-05T22:16:00.000-07:00

Also called Abbot Of Misrule, or King Of Misrule, official of the late medieval and early Tudor period in England, who was specially appointed to manage the Christmas festivities held at court, in the houses of great noblemen, in the law schools of the Inns of Court, and in many of the colleges at the universities of Cambridge and Oxford. During his reign, which lasted anywhere from 12 days to 3 months, the Lord of Misrule

Anthony, Michael

2005-04-05T08:34:00.000-07:00

In the mid-1950s Anthony left Trinidad to live in England, where he worked at Reuters News Agency

Medicine, The industrial and the personal physician

2005-04-04T20:13:00.000-07:00

When a worker also has a personal physician, there may be doubt, in some cases, as to which physician bears the main responsibility for his health. When someone has an accident or becomes acutely ill at work, the first aid is given or directed by the industrial physician. Subsequent treatment may be given either at the clinic at work or by the personal physician. Because

Craigavon, James Craig, 1st Viscount

2005-04-03T13:12:00.000-07:00

Craig became a stockbroker, served with an Irish unit in the South African (Boer) War, and in 1906 entered

Medicine, The industrial and the personal physician

2005-04-03T07:55:00.000-07:00

Nitric oxide is formed from

Taconite

2005-04-02T19:52:00.000-08:00

A low-grade siliceous iron formation in Minnesota, U.S., from which high-grade iron ore is derived. The iron formation consists of fine-grained silica with variable ratios of hematite and magnetite totaling less than 30 percent iron. Recovery of the iron requires fine grinding and concentration of iron-bearing phases, which in turn are formed into pellets suitable for

Tagalog

2005-04-01T16:42:00.000-08:00

Largest cultural-linguistic group in the Philippines. They form the dominant population in the city of Manila; in all provinces bordering Manila Bay except Pampanga; in Nueva Ecija to the north; and in Batangas, Laguna, Marinduque, Mindoro, and Quezon to the south. Tagalog is an Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) language like the other Philippine languages. The mother

Palau, Relief and drainage

2005-03-31T16:53:00.000-08:00

All but six of Palau's islands lie within an expansive lagoon, enclosed by the barrier reef, that stretches northeast to southwest for almost 70 miles (113 km). Babelthuap, the largest island (153 square miles [396 square km]), is volcanic, mainly andesite, and is bounded by thick mangrove forests broken occasionally by sandy beaches on the east coast. Its highest point, Rois Ngerekelehuus,

Star Of India

2005-03-31T03:38:00.000-08:00

A large, cabochon-cut, gray-blue star sapphire, slightly oval in shape. The polished but unfaceted gem weighs 536 carats and was found in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). It was presented to the American Museum of Natural History, in New York City, by J.P. Morgan.

Mckinley, John

2005-03-30T04:57:00.000-08:00

After practicing law briefly in Kentucky, where he grew up, McKinley settled in Huntsville, Alabama, then a centre of planting and political interests, in 1818. In 1820 he was elected to the Alabama state legislature and two years later, despite the support

Mcmurdo Sound

2005-03-29T15:56:00.000-08:00

Bay off Antarctica that forms the western extension of Ross Sea, lying at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf, west of Ross Island and east of Victoria Land. The channel, 92 miles (148 km) long and up to 46 miles (74 km) wide, has been a major centre for Antarctic explorations. First discovered in 1841 by the Scottish explorer Sir James Clark Ross, it thereafter served as one of the main access routes to

Deering, William

2005-03-29T09:25:00.000-08:00

Deering helped manage his family's woolen mill in South Paris in western Maine. About 1850 he went to Illinois and Iowa to invest in farmland, but he returned to South Paris in 1856 and set up a

Aspergillus

2005-03-28T22:11:00.000-08:00

Genus of the Fungi Imperfecti (form-class Deuteromycetes). Those species for which the sexual phase is known are placed in the order Eurotiales. A. niger causes black mold of foodstuffs; A. flavus, A. niger, and A. fumigatus cause aspergillosis in humans. A. oryzae is used to ferment sake, and A. wentii to process soybeans. Three genera of the class Ascomycetes have

Fox, Vicente

2005-03-27T13:35:00.000-08:00

Fox, the second of nine children, was born to parents of Spanish and Irish descent and raised on a 1,100-acre (445-hectare) ranch in the state of Guanajuato. After earning a degree in business administration from the Ibero-American

Anderson, Helen Eugenie Moore

2005-03-27T00:30:00.000-08:00

Eugenie Moore attended Stephens College (Columbia, Missouri) in 1926–27, Simpson College (Indianola, Iowa) in 1927–28, and Carleton College (Northfield, Minnesota) in 1929–30; she took no degree. In 1930 she married John P. Anderson. During two years in New York City she studied piano at the Juilliard

Esfahan, Great Mosque Of

2005-03-26T23:20:00.000-08:00

Persian Masjed-e Jame ' (“Universal Mosque”), a complex of buildings in Esfahan, Iran, that centres on the 11th-century domed sanctuary and includes a second smaller domed chamber, built in 1088, known for its beauty of proportion and design. The central sanctuary was built under the direction of Nizam al-Mulk, vizier to the Seljuq ruler Malik-Shah, probably between 1070 and 1075. It stands at the south end of the courtyard.

Botany Bay

2005-03-25T13:57:00.000-08:00

The bay was the site in 1770 of Captain James Cook's first landing in Australia. He named it Stingray Harbour but later changed the name because

Middletown

2005-03-25T01:20:00.000-08:00

City, coextensive with the town (township) of Middletown, Middlesex county, central Connecticut, U.S., on the Connecticut River. Settled by Puritans in 1650 and incorporated as a town in 1651, it occupies the site of the Indian village of Mattabesec (Mattabesett). It was named in 1653 for its position between the upstream towns and the river mouth. The city, chartered in 1784, consolidated with

Ahmad Sirhindi, Shaykh

2005-03-24T21:45:00.000-08:00

Shaykh Ahmad, who through his paternal line traced his descent from the caliph 'Umar I (the second

Tarai

2005-03-24T20:53:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Terai region of northern India and southern Nepal running parallel to the lower Himalayan ranges. A strip of undulating former marshland, it stretches from the Yamuna River (west) to the Brahmaputra River (east). At its northern edge are numerous springs forming several streams, including the important Ghaghara River, that intersect the Tarai (meaning “moist land”) and are

Aedui

2005-03-23T04:50:00.000-08:00

Celtic tribe of central Gaul (occupying most of what was later Burgundy), chiefly responsible for the diplomatic situation exploited by Julius Caesar when he began his conquests in that region in 58 BC. The Aedui had been supported by Rome since 121 BC, but they were heavily defeated in about 61 BC by the Sequani and lost their revenue from tolls on the Arar (Saône) River. Appealing to

Visconti, Gian Galeazzo

2005-03-22T05:44:00.000-08:00

The son of Galeazzo II Visconti, who shared the rule of Milan with his brother Bernabò, Gian Galeazzo was married in 1360 to Isabella of Valois, daughter of the king of France. After his father's death

Latifundium

2005-03-22T05:42:00.000-08:00

The ancient Roman latifundia originated from the allocation of land confiscated by Rome from certain conquered communities, beginning in the early 2nd century BC. Earlier, in classical Greece of the 5th century BC, sizable estates were cultivated for high profit, based

André Le Chapelain,

2005-03-21T10:49:00.000-08:00

Latin Andreas Capellanus French writer on the art of courtly love, best known for his three-volume treatise Liber de arte honeste amandi et reprobatione inhonesti amoris (c. 1185; “Book of the Art of Loving Nobly and the Reprobation of Dishonourable Love”). He is thought to have been a chaplain at the court of Marie, Countess of Champagne, daughter of Eleanor of Aquitaine. At Marie's request

Babbitt, Milton

2005-03-19T21:15:00.000-08:00

Babbitt attended public schools in Jackson, Miss., and later studied at New

Pregnancy, Chorionic villi sampling

2005-03-19T10:37:00.000-08:00

The technique of retrieving a sample of villi from the chorion (outer embryonic membrane) within the uterus is similar to amniocentesis but can be carried out much earlier in pregnancy, between the 8th and 12th week of gestation. The test can be performed through either the abdomen or the vagina and cervix. The latter technique is carried out using ultrasonic visualization,

Muharraq, Al-

2005-03-19T06:09:00.000-08:00

Taken

Trajan's Bridge

2005-03-18T17:20:00.000-08:00

First bridge spanning the Danube River, built east of the Iron Gate Rapids at Turnu Severin by the Roman emperor Trajan (reigned AD 98–117) to guarantee the supply line of his legions in conquered Dacia. The engineer, probably Trajan's lieutenant, Apollodorus of Damascus, used timber arches mounted on masonry piers to span the 0.5-mile- (800-metre-) wide river. A century and a half later the

Biblical Literature, The Letter of Paul to Philemon

2005-03-18T06:15:00.000-08:00

From Ephesus, where he was imprisoned (c. 53–54), Paul wrote his shortest and most personal letter to a Phrygian Christian (probably from Colossae or nearby Laodicea) whose slave Onesimus had run away, after possibly having stolen money from his master. The slave apparently had met Paul in prison, was converted, and was being returned to his master with a letter from Paul appealing

Calarasi

2005-03-17T08:24:00.000-08:00

Judet (county), southwestern Romania, occupying an area of 1,835 sq mi (4,754 sq km). The county, consisting mostly of lowlands, was formed in 1981 from portions of Ialomita and Ilfov districts. The Danube River, flowing northeastward, marks the county's eastern border; and the Borcea, Barza, and Dâmbovita rivers, tributaries of the Danube, drain southward. The Mostistea and Galatui lakes lie in the

Musa

2005-03-17T08:07:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Mousa , also called Kankan Musa mansa (emperor) of the West African empire of Mali from 1307 (or 1312). Mansa Musa left a realm notable for its extent and riches (he built the Great Mosque at Timbuktu), but he is best remembered in the Middle East and Europe for the splendour of his pilgrimage to Mecca (1324).

Abdominal Muscle

2005-03-17T00:54:00.000-08:00

The first three muscle layers

Furniture, Bathroom furniture and fixtures

2005-03-16T23:38:00.000-08:00

Bathrooms in large private homes were not unknown in the 18th century, and splendidly equipped marble bathrooms are still preserved in several European palaces and mansions. But not until the 19th century did bathrooms in private homes become more commonplace. Fixtures generally include a toilet, bidet, washbasin, bath, mirror, and shelves. In the 20th century the equipping

Cardiovascular Disease, Severe congestive heart failure

2005-03-16T20:08:00.000-08:00

Heart failure may become totally disabling, with severe respiratory distress and inability to lie flat and to exercise. Gross edema including abnormal amounts of fluid in the abdomen (ascites) and in the chest cavity (hydrothorax) is present. When such circumstances are prolonged, general body deterioration may develop, with various secondary effects, such as appetite

Quadrangle

2005-03-15T07:28:00.000-08:00

Byname Quad, in architecture, rectangular open space completely or partially enclosed by buildings of an academic or civic character. The grounds of a quadrangle are often grassy or landscaped. Such a quadrangular area, intended as an environment for contemplation, study, or relaxation, was a feature of monastic establishments and thus of the colleges that evolved from them.

Conservative Force

2005-03-14T10:00:00.000-08:00

In physics, any force, such as the gravitational force between the Earth and another mass, whose work is determined only by the final displacement of the object acted upon. The total work done by a conservative force is independent of the path resulting in a given displacement and is equal to zero when the path is a closed loop. Stored energy, or potential energy, can be

Thought, Artistic versus scientific creativity

2005-03-14T05:48:00.000-08:00

While the processes of creative thinking in artistic and scientific pursuits have much in common, there are also distinctive differences. The artist places more importance on feeling and individual expression, often going to extremes to divorce himself from environmental constraints. The scientist relies more on disciplined, logical thinking to lead him

Yak

2005-03-13T13:47:00.000-08:00

Some large yak bulls attain heights of about 1.8 m (6 feet) at the shoulder hump; cows and domesticated varieties are much smaller. The hair of wild yak is black and short, except on the flanks and tail where it forms a long, shaggy fringe.

Earth, Determining the form of the geoid with Stokes's formula

2005-03-13T07:53:00.000-08:00

Where g is the local value of the acceleration due to gravity. The effect of mass

Hooghly River

2005-03-13T01:18:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Hugli, river in West Bengal state, northeastern India, an arm of the Ganges, providing access to Calcutta from the Bay of Bengal. It is formed by the junction of the Bhagirathi and Jalangi rivers at Nabadwip. From there the Hooghly flows generally south for about 160 miles (about 260 km) to the Bay of Bengal, through a heavily industrialized area with more than one-half of West Bengal's population.

Buon Me Thuot

2005-03-12T22:16:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Ban Me Thuot, formerly Lac Giao, largest city in the central highlands, west-central Vietnam. At an elevation of 1,759 feet (536 m), it lies at the southern end of the Dac Lac Plateau, 55 miles (89 km) north-northwest of Da Lat. It has teacher-training and vocational schools, hospitals, and a commercial airport. There are coffee, tea, and rubber plantations in the surrounding area. Rice is grown in the Krong River valley to the

Sankaran Nair, Sir Chettur

2005-03-11T14:12:00.000-08:00

Sankaran Nair

Amreli

2005-03-11T13:36:00.000-08:00

Formerly Amaravalli, town, southwestern Gujarat state, west-central India. The town lies on the Kathiawar Peninsula, 125 miles (200 km) southwest of Ahmadabad. Primarily a commercial centre, its industries include the manufacture of khadi (coarse cotton cloth), tanning, silverworking, and cotton ginning. Amreli is served by a railway and an airfield. Chief crops of the surrounding area are millet, peanuts

Franceschini, Baldassare

2005-03-11T07:27:00.000-08:00

At a very early age Franceschini started as an assistant to his father, a sculptor. From 1652 to 1660 he worked on paintings in the cupola of the Niccolini Chapel in Santa Croce, Florence. His work during these years was his most notable. Among his best oil paintings of large scale is the “St. John the

Khan

2005-03-10T15:09:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Cham, historically, the ruler or monarch of a Mongol tribe (ulus). At the time of Genghis Khan (early 13th century) a distinction was made between the title of khan and that of khakan, which was the title Genghis assumed as Great Khan, or supreme ruler of the Mongols. The term khan was subsequently adopted by many Muslim societies. Among the Seljuqs and the Khwarezm-Shahs of Central and

Germanic Religion And Mythology, Worship

2005-03-09T16:41:00.000-08:00

Sacrifice often was conducted in the open or in groves and forests. The human sacrifice to the tribal god of the Semnones, described by Tacitus, took place in a sacred grove; other examples of sacred groves include the one in which Nerthus usually resides. Tacitus does, however, mention temples in Germany, though they were probably few. Old English laws mention fenced

Coin, Scandinavia

2005-03-09T11:14:00.000-08:00

The origin of Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish coinages is clearly the result of the Danish conquest of England. The Runic alphabet was employed, though not by any means exclusively, on many early coins of Denmark and Norway. The Norwegian series began with Haakon the Great (c. 970–995), who copied the pennies of Ethelred II. In the second half of the 11th century, a coinage of small, thin

Talaud Islands

2005-03-08T11:51:00.000-08:00

Indonesian Kepulauan Talaud , also spelled Talaur , or Talaut islands administered from Manado as part of Sulawesi Utara provinsi (“province”), Indonesia. The group includes Karakelong (the largest), Salebabu, Kaburuang, and numerous islets, with a total area of 495 square miles (1,281 square km). The coast of Karakelong Island is steep except on the southern shore, which is fringed by a wide reef. The seven tiny Nanusa Islands lie northeast of

Profumo Affair

2005-03-08T11:24:00.000-08:00

At a party at the country estate of Lord Astor on July

Nadelman, Elie

2005-03-08T01:23:00.000-08:00

Lincoln Kirstin, The Sculpture of Elie Nadelman (1948), and Elie Nadelman (1973); John I.H. Baur, The Sculpture and Drawings of Elie Nadelman (1975).

Chabrier, (alexis-) Emmanuel

2005-03-07T22:16:00.000-08:00

Chabrier was attracted in his youth to both music and painting. He studied law in Paris from 1858 to 1862. During these years he also studied the piano and harmony and counterpoint. His

Ashford

2005-03-06T03:11:00.000-08:00

Town and borough (district), administrative and historic county of Kent, England. It was established in 1974 from the former urban district of Ashford, rural districts of East and West Ashford, and the metropolitan borough and rural district of Tenterden. The old town of Ashford was granted a market in the 13th century that later became a stock market for the pastoral farms

Plain

2005-03-06T02:46:00.000-08:00

Any relatively level area of the Earth's surface exhibiting gentle slopes and small local relief. Plains vary widely in size. The smallest occupy only a few hectares, whereas the largest cover hundreds of thousands of square kilometres—as, for example, the Great Plains of North America and the expanse of gently undulating land that sweeps from the Pyrenees Range

Sicily

2005-03-05T14:57:00.000-08:00

Italian Sicilia island of Italy, the largest and one of the most densely populated in the Mediterranean Sea. Together with the Egadi, Lipari, Pelagie, and Panteleria islands, Sicily forms an autonomous region of Italy. It lies about 100 miles (160 km) northeast of Tunisia (northern Africa). The island is separated from the mainland by the Strait of Messina (2 miles [3 km] wide in the north and 10 miles [16

Lilienthal, David E.

2005-03-05T13:53:00.000-08:00

After graduation from DePauw University (Greencastle, Ind.) and Harvard Law School (1923), Lilienthal practiced law, engaging especially in cases of labour

Good Shepherd Sister

2005-03-05T04:33:00.000-08:00

Member of The Religious of Our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd (R.G.S.) , also called Sisters of Our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd a Roman Catholic order of religious devoted particularly to the care, rehabilitation, and education of girls and young women who have demonstrated delinquent behaviour. The congregation traces its history to an order founded by St. John Eudes in 1641 at Caen, Fr. This order, known as the Religious of Our Lady of Charity of the Refuge, was virtually destroyed during the French

Hennepin, Louis

2005-03-04T17:37:00.000-08:00

Hennepin joined the Récollet Order of Friars Minor, Béthune, France, and in 1675 went to Canada with La Salle, whose chaplain he became in

Vance, Cyrus

2005-03-03T21:24:00.000-08:00

Vance received his bachelor's degree from Yale University in 1939. Following graduation from the Yale law school in 1942, he enlisted in the navy and served until 1946, after which he joined a Wall

Kambalda

2005-03-03T15:31:00.000-08:00

Mining town, southern Western Australia. It lies 37 miles (60 km) south of Kalgoorlie-Boulder. Gold was mined there from 1896 to 1906, but the site's modern importance dates from 1966, when deposits of high-grade nickel were discovered in the vicinity. The nickel ores are smelted at Kalgoorlie-Boulder, refined at Kwinana (south of Perth), or carried southward to the port of Esperance for shipment.

B-film

2005-03-03T02:06:00.000-08:00

Todd McCarthy and Charles Flynn (eds.), Kings of the Bs: Working Within the Hollywood System (1975).

Metallography

2005-03-02T18:50:00.000-08:00

Metal surfaces and fractures examined with the unaided eye or with a magnifying glass or metallurgical or binocular microscope at magnifications less than 10 diameters can reveal valuable information as to the crystalline, chemical,

Primate, Diet

2005-03-02T07:42:00.000-08:00

The principal food substances taken by primates may be divided into

Epistemology, The nature of knowledge

2005-03-02T01:18:00.000-08:00

As indicated above, one of the basic questions of epistemology concerns the nature of knowledge. Philosophers normally interpret this query as a conceptual question, i.e., as an issue about a certain conception or idea or notion called knowledge. The question raises a perplexing methodological issue, namely, how does one go about investigating such conceptual questions?

Cambridge, Richard Owen

2005-02-28T23:13:00.000-08:00

Educated at Eton College and at St. John's College, Oxford, the young Cambridge went into residence at Lincoln's Inn in 1737. Four years later he married and went to live at his country seat of Whitminster, Gloucestershire. In 1751 he moved to Twickenham, where he

Offa Of Angel

2005-02-28T03:45:00.000-08:00

According to the Old English poem “Widsith,” Offa saved his aged father, King Wermund, from falling under Saxon domination by defeating a Saxon king's son in single combat. Later Offa became ruler of the large kingdom of Angel, and he is said to have established Fifldor

Silas, Saint

2005-02-27T20:56:00.000-08:00

It is generally believed that the Silas in Acts and the Silvanus in 2 Corinthians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and 1 Peter are the same. Acts 15:22 first mentions him as one of the “leading men among the brethren” (i.e., the Christian community at Jerusalem);

Essaouira

2005-02-27T09:40:00.000-08:00

Formerly Mogador, Atlantic port city, western Morocco, midway between Safi and Agadir. The site was occupied by Phoenicians and then Carthaginians and was mentioned in the chronicles of the Carthaginian explorer Hanno (5th century BC). Medieval charts show it as Mogador, a corruption of a Berber word for “safe anchorage.” It stands on a peninsula 10–20 feet (3–7 m) above sea level and at times with heavy

Coke, Sir Edward

2005-02-26T19:55:00.000-08:00

British jurist and politician whose defense of the supremacy of the common law against Stuart claims of royal prerogative had a profound influence on the development of English law and the English constitution.

China, Renewed Communist-Nationalist conflict

2005-02-26T14:26:00.000-08:00

There were numerous clashes between Communists and Nationalists as their military forces competed for control of enemy territory and as the Communists tried to expand their political influence in Nationalist territory through propaganda and secret organizing. Though both sides continued the war against Japan, each was fighting for its own ultimate advantage.

Alexis

2005-02-26T08:03:00.000-08:00

The son of Michael, the first Romanov monarch of Russia (reigned 1613–45), Alexis received a superficial education from his tutor Boris Ivanovich Morozov before acceding to the throne at the age of 16. Morozov, who was also Alexis' brother-in-law, initially took charge of state affairs, but in 1648 a popular uprising

Ashes

2005-02-25T21:57:00.000-08:00

Symbol of victory in the usually biennial cricket Test (international) match series between select national teams of England and Australia, first staged in 1877. Its name stems from an epitaph published in 1882 after the Australian team had won its first victory over England in England, at the Oval, London. The epitaph lamented that English cricket was dead and that its body

Sacrament, Sacramental ideas and practices in the Greco-Roman world

2005-02-24T05:19:00.000-08:00

In the Greco-Oriental mystery cults the sacramental ritual based on the fertility motif was less prominent than in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian religions. It did, nevertheless, occur in the Eleusinia, a Greek agricultural festival celebrated in honour of the goddess Demeter and her daughter Kore. The things spoken and done in this great event have remained undisclosed,

Masolino

2005-02-23T10:04:00.000-08:00

Masolino came from the same district of Tuscany

Crab-eating Fox

2005-02-23T09:10:00.000-08:00

Also called Savanna Fox, or Crab-eating Dog (Cerdocyon thous), South American member of the dog family (Canidae), found in grassy or forested areas. It attains a length of 60–70 cm (24–28 inches), excluding a 30-centimetre tail, and has a gray to brown coat that is frequently tinged with yellow. It generally lives alone or in pairs and spends the day in a burrow, emerging at night to hunt for such foods as small animals, fruit, insects, turtle

Cohen, Paul Joseph

2005-02-22T20:30:00.000-08:00

Cohen attended the University of Chicago (M.S., 1954; Ph.D., 1958). He held appointments at the University of Rochester, N.Y. (1957–58), and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1958–59) before joining the Institute

English Literature, Locke

2005-02-22T16:46:00.000-08:00

One other late 17th-century figure with a formidable influence in the 18th century demands consideration: the philosopher John Locke. His Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) rejects a belief in innate ideas and argues that the mind at birth is a tabula rasa. Experience of the world can only be accumulated through the senses, which are themselves prone to unreliability.

Arts, East Asian, Painting and pictorial arts

2005-02-21T02:54:00.000-08:00

Practically nothing survives of Chou painting, although from literary evidence it seems that the art developed considerably, particularly during the period of the Warring States. Palaces and ancestral halls were decorated with wall paintings. Late Chou texts tell of a craftsman working for the Duke of Chou (Chou Kung) who covered the stock of a whip with minute

France, History Of, France since 1815

2005-02-20T23:17:00.000-08:00

Volumes 2 and 3 of the already mentioned Alfred Cobban, A History of Modern France, 3 vol. (1957–62, reprinted 1969), present the period from the First Empire to the Republics in a sophisticated synthesis; and Gordon Wright, France in Modern Times: From the Enlightenment to the Present, 4th ed. (1987), is an interpretive general survey. Appropriate parts of the massive collective work Histoire économique et sociale de la France, 4 vol. in 8 (1970–82), Fernand Braudel and Ernest Labrousse (eds.), provide coverage by some of the best French experts of economic and social developments up to the last quarter of the 20th century. Surveys of special topics on all or most of the period since 1815 include René Rémond, The Right Wing in France from 1815 to De Gaulle, 2nd ed. (1969; originally published in French, 3rd ed., 1968; rev. French ed., 1982), tracing change and continuity of the political right; Gérard Cholvy and Yves-Marie Hilaire, Histoire religieuse de la France contemporaine, 3 vol. (1985–88), an analysis of the role of various religions; and Raoul Girardet, La Société militaire dans la France contemporaine, 1815–1939 (1953), on the changing role and composition of the military corps. The role of France in world affairs is emphasized in Pierre Renouvin, Le XIXe, 2 vol. (1954–55), on the developments of the 19th century, part of the series “Histoire des relations internationales.” François Caron, An Economic History of Modern France, trans. from French (1979, reissued 1983), revises older views about France's rate of growth; Theodore Zeldin, France, 1848–1945, 2 vol. (1973–77), explores modern French society, stressing its complexity and continuity; and Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France (1976), argues that a sense of nationhood came to rural France only in the late 19th century. Period studies include Guillaume de Bertier de Sauvigny, The Bourbon Restoration (1966, originally published in French, 1955), the standard work on the period 1815–1830; David H. Pinkney, Decisive Years in France, 1840–1847 (1986), arguing that France changed fundamentally in these years; Roger Price, The French Second Republic: A Social History (1972), a thoughtful reevaluation; Ted W. Margadant, French Peasants in Revolt: The Insurrection of 1851 (1979), suggesting that leftist views remained vigorous after 1848; J.P.T. Bury, Napoléon III and the Second Empire (1964), a well-informed analysis; Michael Howard, The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France, 1870–1871 (1961, reissued 1981), a model study; and Stewart Edwards, The Paris Commune, 1871 (1971), a balanced reevaluation. Roger Shattuck, The Banquet Years: The Origins of the Avant Garde in France, 1885 to World War I, rev. ed. (1968, reissued 1984), is a brilliant survey of Parisian culture of the period; and Charles Rearick, Pleasures of the Belle Epoque: Entertainment and Festivity in Turn-of-the-Century France (1985), describes the high life in Monmartre. D.W. Brogan, France Under the Republic: The Development of Modern France, 1870–1939 (1940, reprinted 1974), is a classic account; Jacques Chastenet, Histoire de la Troisième République, 7 vol. (1952–63, reissued in 4 vol., 1974), remains the most detailed treatment of the period; David Thomson, Democracy in France Since 1870, 5th ed. (1969), offers a penetrating study of political and social aspects; and Jean-Denis Bredin, The Affair: The Case of Alfred Dreyfus (1986; originally published in French, 1983), provides a highly readable account of the great crisis. For the 20th century, see Eugen Weber, Action Française: Royalism and Reaction in Twentieth Century France (1962), a full analysis of this right-wing movement; Zeev Sternhell, La Droite Révolutionnaire, 1885–1914: les origines françaises du fascisme (1978, reprinted 1984), a controversial argument that fascism was born in France; Marc Ferro, The Great War, 1914–1918 (1973, reissued 1987; originally published in French, 1969), a good synthesis; Robert O. Paxton, Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940–1944 (1972, reissued 1982), a critical analysis of the Pétain regime; Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, La Décadence, 1932–1939, 3rd rev. ed. (1985), and L'Abîme: 1939–1945, 2nd rev. ed. (1986), two volumes of devastating analysis of French foreign policy before and during World War II; Charles de Gaulle, War Memoirs, 5 vol. (1955–60; originally published in French, 1954–59), and Memoirs of Hope: Renewal and Endeavor (1971; originally published in French, 2 vol., 1970–71), indispensable for an understanding of the Gaullist era; Jean Lacouture, Charles de Gaulle, 3 vol. (1984–86), a full and perceptive biography; Philip M. Williams, Crisis and Compromise: Politics in the Fourth Republic, 3rd ed. (1964, reissued 1972), an excellent account of that system of government; Pierre Viansson-Ponté, Histoire de la république gaullienne, 2 vol. (1970–71, reissued in 1 vol., 1984), on the Fifth Republic's Gaullist phase; Stanley Hoffmann et al., In Search of France (1963), an analysis of postwar France; George Ross, Stanley Hoffmann, and Sylvia Malzacher (eds.), The Mitterrand Experiment: Continuity and Change in Modern France (1987), a study of the socialist years; and Alfred Grosser, Affaires extérieures: la politique de la France, 1944–1989 (1989), a penetrating analysis of postwar France's role in the world.

Amphetamine

2005-02-19T13:05:00.000-08:00

Prototype of a series of synthetic drugs, all called amphetamines, that have pronounced stimulatory actions on the central nervous system. Amphetamine itself is a colourless liquid with an acrid taste and a faint odour; the most widely used preparation of the drug is amphetamine sulfate, marketed under the name Benzedrine, a white powder with a slightly bitter,

Craigie, Sir William Alexander

2005-02-19T04:59:00.000-08:00

Craigie attended St. Andrews University, studied Scandinavian languages in Copenhagen, and taught at St. Andrews

Scythian

2005-02-18T20:12:00.000-08:00

Much of what is known of the history of the Scythians comes from the account of them by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who visited their territory. In modern times this

Afghanistan, Plant and animal life

2005-02-17T18:40:00.000-08:00

Vegetation is sparse in the southern part of the country, particularly toward the west, where dry regions and sandy deserts predominate. Trees are rare, and only in the rainy season of early spring is the soil covered with flowering grasses and herbs. The plant cover becomes denser toward the north, where precipitation is more abundant, and at higher elevations the

Earth, Faulting

2005-02-16T10:21:00.000-08:00

Extension of the Earth's crust may result in the formation of numerous parallel ridges and valleys

John Frederick

2005-02-16T08:48:00.000-08:00

The elder son of the elector John the Steadfast, John Frederick

Bingham, Hiram

2005-02-16T05:34:00.000-08:00

As a boy Bingham learned mountaineering from his father, a well-known Pacific missionary. This skill vastly aided

Allée

2005-02-15T21:09:00.000-08:00

The allée normally passed through a planted boscage (a small wood); in the 17th century the boscage was square-trimmed at the sides and on top; later the sides were

China, Literature and scholarship

2005-02-14T00:05:00.000-08:00

As was the case with much of the painting, Ming poetry and belles lettres were deliberately composed “after the fashion of” earlier masters, and groups of writers and critics earnestly argued about the merits of different T'ang and Sung exemplars. No Ming practitioner of traditional poetry has won special esteem, though Ming literati churned out poetry in prodigious

Skara Brae

2005-02-13T10:25:00.000-08:00

One of the most perfectly preserved Stone Age villages in Europe, which was covered for hundreds of years by a sand dune on the shore of the Bay of Skaill, Mainland, Orkney Islands, Scot. Exposed by a great storm in 1850, four buildings were excavated during the 1860s by William Watt. After another storm in 1926, further excavations were undertaken by the Ancient Monuments branch of

Bingham, Hiram

2005-02-13T02:39:00.000-08:00

Negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union that were aimed at curtailing the manufacture of strategic missiles capable of carrying nuclear weapons. The first agreements, known as SALT I and SALT II, were signed by the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1972 and 1979, respectively, and were intended to restrain the arms race in strategic

Insurance, Warranties

2005-02-12T07:15:00.000-08:00

Examples of expressed warranties are the FC&S warranty and the strike,

Johnson, Samuel

2005-02-11T04:16:00.000-08:00

Samuel Johnson was the son of Michael Johnson, a bookseller, and his wife, Sarah. From childhood he suffered from a number of physical afflictions and could have spoken, as had the 18th-century English poet Alexander Pope, of “this long disease my life.” By his own account, he was born “almost dead,” and he early contracted scrofula (tuberculosis of the lymphatic glands). Because

France, History Of, Louis XIII

2005-02-10T06:24:00.000-08:00

Henry's reign was followed by the regency of his widow, Marie de Médicis, who ruled on behalf of their young son Louis XIII (1610–43). Once more the security of the country was threatened as factions disputed around the throne. The work of Henry IV seemed likely to be undone. Crown and country, however, were rescued by probably the greatest minister of the whole Bourbon dynasty—Armand-Jean

Nordheim, Sondre

2005-02-10T00:11:00.000-08:00

Nordheim in 1860 was the first to use bindings of willow, cane, and birch root around the heel from each side of the toe strap to fasten the boot to the ski, thus revolutionizing skiing and making ski jumping possible. He himself

Argentina, Plant and animal life

2005-02-09T15:14:00.000-08:00

Argentina's fauna and flora vary widely from the country's mountainous zones to its dry and humid plains and its subpolar regions. In heavily settled regions the makeup of animal and plant life has been profoundly modified.

Aegithalidae

2005-02-08T09:44:00.000-08:00

Songbird family that includes the long-tailed tits (or titmice) of the Old World and the bushtits of North America. Both groups are sometimes considered subfamilies of the family Paridae (order Passeriformes). The eight species are small, arboreal insect eaters with long, narrow tails; tiny bills; and silky, plain plumage. The nest is a thick-walled,

Sabang

2005-02-08T04:55:00.000-08:00

Kotamadya (city) and free port, Aceh daerah istimewa (special district), Indonesia, on the northeastern coast of We Island, off the northern tip of Sumatra. It lies at the northern entrance to the Strait of Malacca and is the first port of call in the Malay Archipelago for vessels coming from the west. The harbour, built in 1887, is sheltered from the strong winds and heavy swells

Sestina

2005-02-08T01:29:00.000-08:00

Elaborate verse form employed by medieval Provençal and Italian, and occasional modern, poets. It consists, in its pure medieval form, of six stanzas of blank verse, each of six lines—hence the name. The final words of the first stanza appear in varied order in the other five, the order used by the Provençals being: abcdef, faebdc, cfdabe, ecbfad, deacfb, bdfeca. Following these

Tyrone, Hugh O'neill, 2nd Earl Of

2005-02-06T02:29:00.000-08:00

Although born into the powerful O'Neill family of Ulster, Hugh grew up in London. In 1568 he returned to Ireland and

Aeschylus, Recommended editions

2005-02-05T14:15:00.000-08:00

Aeschylus, 2 vol. (1953–56, reissued 1967), contains English translations of all the plays and is part of The Complete Greek Tragedies series, ed. by Richmond Lattimore and David Grene. Recent editions of the trilogy are Oresteia, trans. by Hugh Lloyd-Jones, 3 vol. (1979, reissued in 1 vol., 1982); and The Oresteia, trans. by Robert Fagles (1975, reissued 1984).

Earth, Mid-oceanic ridges

2005-02-05T02:09:00.000-08:00

These structures represent the spreading axes of plate tectonics, along which hot volcanic material is ejected to become new oceanic lithosphere. Bathymetrically, the ridges are striking topographic features, rising one to three kilometres above the deep ocean floor on either side. That they are associated with geoidal highs can be seen on the global map of the